Napoleon had forged his academic revolution with the creation of institutions such as the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole Normale Superieure. But too strong an emphasis on mathematics serving the needs of the state had seen Paris lose its place as the focus of mathematical activity to the medieval town of Gottingen, where the more abstract approach of Gauss and Riemann was allowed to flourish. In the second half of the twentieth century there was a new optimism in France that Paris could regain its position as a key player in the world of mathematics.